VAN NOSTRAND'S SCIENCE SERIES 



126. 



SO f f.*. 



PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN 



AEROPLANES. 



in.:, m •■'■' ilA'l LEY, B.Sc, A.M.UJ.E.I., 

(I ■•••■>> I RIN MEMBER OF AERONAUTICAL SOCIETY OF 
REM BRITAIN, MEMBER OF SOCIETY OF ARTS, 
ROFE HOD CIVII. ENGINEERING, MI 

UIA1 RAH V V\ COIXEGE, NORTH CHINA, 

a. H a DF'*'*HS PROBLEM OF PUQKT/' u THE FORCE 
OF THE WIND," ** STRESSES IN MASONRY,' ""HOW TO 
? w, B <^E»/' "SUKVETIHG," n HOW TO 

Bl ILI> AND iiESlGN IN 8TJ8KE," « 



SECOND EDITION, REVISED 




\V VOKK : 

^OSTRAND COMPANY, 

' PAKii Place 
1912 



Am 

No. 
No. 

No. 
No. 




Book. -^ o 



Copyright^ . 



I L 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 



uc- 

thur 
re- 
vised, with additions by E. Sherma.ii Gould. 



S 



nds. 



1ND 

hird 

re- 

7 of 

erah 

. R. 

LIN- 

ain. 

IN 

Sec- 

IVm. 



No. 7. SURCHARGED AIV P 

Forms of Retaining-walls. 
Tate, C.E. 



DIFFERENT 

By James S. 



No. 8. A TREATISE ON THE COMPOUND 

Steam-engine. By John Turnbull, Jr.. 2nd 
edition, revised by Prof. S. W. Robinson. 

No. 0. A TREATISE ON FUEL. By Arthur V. 

Abbott, C.E. Pounded on the original treat- 
ise of C. William Siemens, D.C.L. Third ed. 

No. 10. COMPOUND ENGINES. Translated from 

the French of A. Mallet. Second edition, 
revised with results of American Practice, 
by Richard H. 3uel, C.E. 



No. II. THEORY OF ARCHES. 

Allan. 



By Prof. W. 



No. 12. THEORY OF VOUSSOIR ARCHES. By 

Prof. Wm. Cain. Third edition, revised and 
enlarged. 



THE VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. 



No. 13. GASES MET WITH IN COAL, MINES. 

By J. J. Atkinson. Third edition, revised 
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No. 14. FRICTION OF AIR IN MINES. By J. J. 

Atkinson. Second American edition. 

No. 15. SKEW 7 ARCHES. By Prof. E. \V. Hyde, 

C.E. Illustrated. Second edition. 

No. 16. GRAPHIC METHOD FOR SOLVING 

Certain Questions in Arithmetic or Algebra. 
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Gould, M. Am. Soc. C. E. Second Edition. 

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Repeated Strains. With various Tables of 
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Teeth of Wheels. By Prof. S. W. Robinson. 
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the; van nostrand science series. 



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Arches, and of Vaulted Structures. By Prof. 
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Thomas Craig, of Johns Hopkins University. 

No. 44. TURBINE WHEELS. By Prof. W. P. 

Trowbridge, Columbia College. Second edi- 
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DIAGRAM SHOWING PRINCIPLES (I 



LONGITUDINAL GIRDER 




CENTER OF PRESSURE 
IN FRONT OF CENTER 



NORMAL PRESSURE- 
RESOLVED INTO LIFT AND DRIFT 



/^(M 



sNote. — This figure is not intended to represent a desig 
The planes are usually curved, the motor and propellen 
arrangement of revolvable main surfaces has not yet been a 






DECERNED IN AEROPLANE DESIGN. 




THRUSTS SHOULD BALANCE 
ABOUT C.Q. 

/ 
/ 



igiDut only to indicate the mechanical conditions of balance, 
e usually not separated in the manner shown and the 
itated. 



PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN 



AEROPLANES. 



HERBERT CHATLEY, B.Sc, A.M.I.C.E.I., 

(engineering) member of aeronautical society of 
great britain, member of society of arts, 
professor of civil engineering. impe- 
rial railway college, north china. 



AUTHOR OF " THE PROBLEM OF FLIGHT," "THE FORCE 

OF THE WIND," "STRESSES IN MASONRY," "HOW TO 

USE WATER POWER," "SURVEYING," "HOW TO 

BUILD AND DESIGN IN STEEL," &C. 

SECOND EDITION, REVISED 




NEW YORK : 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 
25 Park Place 
1912 



A 



\ v & 



/ 



Copyright, 1911, 1912, 

BY 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY. 



, : A 7 Q 



©CLA314887 



-VM^/ 






PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 



The first edition of this book was much 
criticised for its omission of reference to 
modern machines. I venture to think 
that the essential features of all the 
machines which have had any measure 
of success are to be discovered just as 
well in the earlier machines as the later 
ones. At present the construction is in a 
state of steady evolution which has not 
yet attained any finality, and I have 
therefore deliberately abstained from 
specifying many particulars of actual 
machines. The main questions of auto- 
matic stability and perfection of control 
are by no means settled, and I would 
refer the reader to the now extensive 
aeronautical press for current par- 
ticulars. 



2 



Longitudinal stability has three lines 
of development at present : The rear tail 
as seen in the Bleriot and Antoinette 
machines, the front balances as seen in 
the • Valkyrie f and the; old Wright ma- 
chines, and the reflex curvature as seen 
in the Weiss and Dunne machines. Con- 
trol may be effected by the three^rudder 
system or by warping or rotating the 
main surfaces. All these are points for 
experiment, and I think it is, best not tor 
hamper the student with a preconceived 
idea as to the best type of machine. The 
somewhat bizarre frontispiece is not a 
design at all, but simply a mechanical 
diagram. o : 

Herbert Chatley. 

March, 1912. 



PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN 



AEROPLANES. 



CONTENTS. 

CHAP. PAGE 

I. The Aeroplane 5 

II. Air Pressure 17 

III. Weight and Power . . 27 

IV. Propellers and Motors. . . 36 
V. Balancing 50 

VI. Construction 59 

VII. Difficulties 72 

VIII. Future Developments 82 

IX. Cost 93 

X. Other Flying^Machines 

(Gyroplane iindOrnithoptere) 99 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FIG. PAGE 

General Principles of the Aeroplane 

Frontispiece 

1. Kite 7 

2. Aeronautical motor 37 

3. Aeronautical motor 38 

4. Diagram of the old Farman Aeroplane 60 

5. Longitudinal Girder 62 

6. Transverse Girder 64 

7. The Means control mechanism 87 



CHAPTEE I. 

The Aeroplane. 

During the first decade of the twen- 
tieth century another great stride in 
mechanical science has been taken. 
Machines have been constructed which 
will carry z man through the air ? both 
lifting and propulsion being performed 
by self-contained mechanism. 

For very many years this achievement 
had been expected. The experiments of 
Sir Hiram Maxim and Professor Langley 
had shown the result to be possible, but 
it was left for Messrs. Wright, Santos- 
Dumont and Henry Farman* to dem- 
onstrate the practical fact on a large 
scale. 

There are three types of machine for 

* Bleriot, Esnault-Pelterie, Ferber, Vaija, Gastambide- 
Mangin, Roe. 



performing mechanical flight, each de- 
pending on a different principle : 

(1) The gyroplane, or helicoptere, 
which uses vertical lifting-screws. 

(2) The ornithoptere, which has flap- 
ping wings like a bird. 

(3) The aeroplane, kite, or glider, 
which is a surface pulled or pushed 
through the air. 

Although the first two types are very 
promising, yet it is the last which has 
done definite work, and it is with this 
variety I propose principally to deal. 

It will be noticed that the title "kite" 
is also applied to this type, and, as a 
matter of feet, in its esse: tial principles 
the aeroplane is merely a large variety 
of kite. 

It therefore behooves to study briefly 
the action of the ordinary kite and then 
consider in what manner the kite may 
be modified to act as a flying-machine. 

Taking the very simplest type of kite 






as shown in sketch, we notice three fea- 
tures : 



TWISTING EFFECT 

_ BALANCED BY TAIL 




Fig. 1. KITE 

(1) A more or less rigid surface. 

(2) A cord tying this surface to the 
earth. 

(3) A continuous motion of air 
against the surface. 

It follows from the simplest mechani- 



8 



cal principles that there are three 
forces in this case, the wind pressure on 
kite, the pull in the cord, and the 
weight of the kite. These three are in 
equilibrium if the kite is stationary. If 
the kite ascends then the vertical com- 
ponent of the wind pressure exceeds the 
weight and downward component of the 
cord pull. This vertical force is termed 
" lift." If the kite travels with the wind 
the component of the wind in the direc- 
tion of the cord exceeds the pull in the 
cord. This lateral force is called " drift" 
or " waftage." 

Since the air is almost frictionless the 
pressure of the kite is practically nor- 
mal to • its surface, and this surface, if 
there is any lifting force, must be in- 
clined to the horizontal, and if the wind 
is horizontal the surface must therefore 
be inclined to the direction of motion 
of the wind. Actually the wind (espe- 
cially near the ground) is slightly 
inclined upward. 

Another feature we notice in the com- 
mon form of kite is the weighted tail. 



Owing to irregular distribution of the 
wind pressure a tailless kite tends to 
spin on the cord ; and since the centre of 
pressure on an inclined surface is usually 
eccentrically placed (see later chapters), 
such a kite loses balance, is overturned 
by the wind, and plunges to the ground. 
Having travelled so far, we can now 
enumerate the principal points to be 
considered : 

(1) The weight of the kite. 

(2) The pressure produced by air 
moving against a surface generally in- 
clined to the horizon. 

(3) The distribution of the pressure 
on that surface. 

(4) The pull available on the cord. 

(5) The provision of a righting 
moment to prevent overturning. 

All these we will shortly treat in de- 
tail, merely premising that on a correct 
understanding of the value of each de- 
pends the whole problem of aerial navi- 
gation. 



10 



If we substitute for the cord a screw 
propeller, or a "tractor" (pulling 
screw) , we have an "aeroplane." By cut- 
ting our connection with the ground, how- 
ever, we have made an enormous difference 
in one of the conditions and it behooves 
us to go very warily. The pressure of 
the air depends on the square of the 
velocity with which the air strikes the 
surface, i.e., the relative velocity, and it 
is necessary to realize at the outset that 
it is this relative velocity which has to 
be considered and not the velocity as 
measured on the ground. This problem 
is further complicated by the fact that 
the velocities we wish to obtain are neces- 
sarily measured on the ground. To give 
a definite example, let us suppose there 
is a wind travelling south with a velocity 
of 30 miles per hour. If we wish to 
travel north with a velocity of 20 miles 
per hour, we have to obtain a relative 
velocity of 30 -f- 20, i.e., 50 miles per 
hour. That is, the machine will be 



11 



carried' with the air at a speed of ■ 30 
miles per hour in a S. direction- and 
must proceed in X. direction as if in still 
air with a speed of 50 miles per hour, i 
Again, if we wish to travel S. in the 
same wind with a velocity of 30 -mile? 
per hour, our relative velocity will Ki 
zero and so no lifting force will be 
available. We shall, in other words;, 
feimply be carried by the wind, and undetf 
such circumstances the only pressure on 
the aeroplane will be due to local varia- 
tions in the velocity, and a ; heavy 
machine would probably quickly descend, 
its downward speed being only checked 
by the resistance caused by the gravi- 
tationally acquired velocity. In such a 
case we should endeavor to get a further 
velocity to provide lifting pressure' of 
say 25 miles an hour. Our actual" veloc- 
ity as compared ivith the earth would 
then be 30 + 25 = 55 miles per hbito, 
but as compared with the' air it wckild 
only be 25 miles per hour. - filiw 



12 



( This point should be very carefully 
considered, since with the wind enormous 
velocities, as compared with the earth, 
might be obtained; but contrary the 
wind there can be no advance as com- 
pared with the earth unless the speed of 
the vessel compared with the air exceed 
that of the wind compared with the 
earth. In fact, under such circum- 
stances it is quite feasible to be lifted 
and at the same time drift with the wind 
but at a lesser velocity. 
,The wind velocity varies from a very 
small quantity (it is rarely zero) up to 
friore than 100 miles per hour. 
The key idea is, of course, this : 
Lifting pressure can only be obtained 
from velocity relatively to the air, and 
the actual motion over the earth can 
only be obtained when the velocity of 
the wind is combined with the velocity 
of the plane as compared with the air. 
Another peculiarity in connection 
with relative motion occurs in the pro- 



13 



peller. It will be remembered that this 
mechanism, being a variety of screw, 
will either move through a nut or the 
nut will move from the screw. The 
air being a nut of rather less solid char- 
acter than those usad for fixing purposes 
causes the actual action of a propeller to 
vary considerably from this simple 
motion of nut or screw. Thus a ven* 
tilating fan does not propel all the air 
which passes through, and a propeller 
does not screw through the air without 
moving it at all. If we multiply 
together the "pitch" and "revolutions'? 
(see later) we get the epeed at which 
the propeller should screw its way into 
the air (pushing or pulling with it the 
aeroplane). Generally, however, the 
speed at which the plane travels is less 
than this propeller velocity. (By speed 
of the plane we, of course, mean as eom+ 
pared with the air. ) The air will then 
slip through the screw and be wasted 
for propulsive purposes. Further prac- 



14 



tical difficulties occur in the churning 
of the air by the screw and also the 
inefficiency of the central parts of the 
screw. 

The next problem, which until quite 
recently presented insuperable difficul- 
ties, is that of weight. The plane has 
to carry in addition to its own weight 
that of the prime mover and the pro- 
peller, together with other small items, 
such as aviators. Since the thrust 
from an air propeller is usually small 
as compared with the power required to 
drive the propeller, and since, further, 
this thrust acting on the aeroplane has 
to indirectly produce the whole of the 
lifting pressure, the weight has to be 
very small as compared with the power. 
Sir Hiram Maxim's steam-engine, 
weighing 2 lbs. per H.P., and certain 
petrol motors, weighing from 5 to 10 
lbs. per H.P., have brought us within 
the limit of weight, but in all other 
respects as well we have to make the 
weight a minimum. 



15 



The final difficulty, the importance of 
which has long been underestimated, is 
that of balancing, i.e., preserving a level 
course. We have already seen that there 
are some difficulties with this in the 
case of the kite, and when we have an 
aeroplane moving through air of con- 
stantly varying velocity, the machine 
possessing considerable momentum and 
wind surface, these difficulties are 
greatly increased. Later on we shall 
consider in what manner righting forces 
can be obtained, but in any case the 
engineer who designs an aeroplane 
cannot give too much attention to this 
question of balancing. 

A general survey has now been made 
of the more crucial problems which 
the inventor has to consider, and in the 
following chapters these will be con- 
sidered in detail. Too much stress 
should not be laid on mathematical cal- 
culations, since the bulk of our knowl- 
edge of this subject is empirical rather 



16 



than ! ' analytical. Nevertheless certain 
^calculations can and must be made, more 
particularly in regard to the angle, area, 
: and weight of the plane, and with these 
I will next deal. 



17 

CHAPTER II. 

Air Pressure. 

In all cases of flying apparatus the 
actual lifting effect is derived from the 
pressure produced on a surface by the 
relative motion of air. and it is therefore 
necessary to have exact notions of the 
pressures produced on planes of different 
areas and shapes, and with different 
relative velocities. 

If we consider that the whole of the 
momentum lost per second is the force 
exerted, we get the following value (for 
ordinary temperature and barometric 
pressure) for pressure on a plane at 
right angles to the direction of motion: 

Pressure (lbs. per sq. foot) == .0023 
X area of plane (in sq. feet) 
X square of velocity (ft. per sec). 

It is a common practice to subtract 
from this 50 per cent, for the kinetic 



18 



energy given to the air in the direction 
of motion, so that the constant then 
becomes .0011. As a matter of fact 
practical experiment shows that a con- 
stant .0017 is more correct, there being 
an additional pressure due to suction 
on the back of the plane. 

This feature of "suction" or "nega- 
tive pressure" on the back of the plane 
has long been recognized, and is due to 
the eddying of the air which has been 
separated by the passage of the plane, 
and also to the fact that the space swept 
out by the plane takes a small but 
appreciable time to fill, so that the pres- 
sure is less than atmospheric. 

Furthermore, there is friction, so 
that we may say 

Pressure on plane = windward pressure 
+ leeward negative pressure + fric- 
tion. 

(Some experimenters neglect the latter , 
but it is occasionally very important.) 

At the outset we must realize that 
each and every part of a machine which 



19 



is moving with a velocity relative to the 
air will experience this resistance. The 
actual magnitude is in general abso- 
lutely dependent on the area exposed in 
the direction of motion. If the surfaces 
be normal to this direction, then the 
value will be that given. If inclined, the 
resistance in the direction of motion will 
be less. If outwardly curved (i.e., con- 
vex) or pointed it will be less still, but if 
concave to wind the pressure will be more. 

It is however, with inclined surfaces 
that we are principally interested, and it 
should first be noticed that in all cases the 
pressure is perpendicular to the exposed 
surface, so that a surface inclined forward 
and upward is subject to a backward and 
upward pressure. In the case of concave 
to wind surfaces the pressure is directed 
a little forward of the perpendicular to 
the chord. 

As stated in the last chapter, the upward 
component is called " lift " and the back- 
ward "drift" or "resistance.' 5 Roughly 
the normal pressure varies as the sine of 



20 

the angle between the plane and the elirec- 
tion of the impinging air-stream-, f'j ^are 
exactly for square planes it varies as 
2 sin 6 .. , 

1 + sin 2 

[Duchemin and Langley.] 

or for long, narrow planes with narrow 
width in direction of motion it varies as 

(4 + tt) sin , 

4 + 7T sin 6 
[Lord Kayleigh and Gerlach.] 

v For general purposes, however, we use 
simply the sine law, so that 

Normal Pressure = .0017 X area X ve- 
I locity 2 X sine X 2.5. 
Drifts. 001 7 X area X velocity 2 X sine 2 6 

X 2.5. 
Lift==.0017 X area X velocity 2 X costf, 

sin X 2.5. 
[For small angles sin 6. cos = sin 0.] 

In all practical cases, however, the rules 
are not to be quite so simply expressed, 
but the following will serve generally : 



21 



Net lifting force (i.e., producing up- 
ward velocity) = weight of aero- 
plane and its load — [.0017 X area 
of plane X (velocity) 2 X sin 6 X 
cos 6 X 25.] 

If the weight is just supported, then 
of course this net lifting force is zero. 
The plane is then said to soar, and the 
velocity which corresponds to this con- 
dition is termed the "soaring" or "criti- 
cal" velocity. 

It can be found easily as follows: 

Soaring velocity 2 (feet per sec. ) = 

/ weight (lbs.) \ 

\.0017 X area (ft.) X sin #-cos d x 2.5 J* 

Since when 6 is small, cos 0=1, we 
have practically the following variations 
to notice: 

Soaring velocity increases with square 
root of weight supported ; 

decreases with square root of area; 

decreases (at first) with square root 
of sine 6. 



22 



In other words/ the greater the area 
or the angle, or both, the less may be 
the soaring velocity. As far as the angle 
is concerned the minimum soaring 
velocity occurs about 30°. This cor- 
responds to a maximum lift with mini- 
mum drift or resistance. By increasing 
the area we can decrease the velocity to 
some extent, but of course the weight 
must increase less rapidly. 

An " angle of attack" of about 3° to 
6° gives the maximum lift-to-drift ratio 
and is therefore the most efficient. 

A very important point to notice is 
that since soaring velocity depends in 
the manner indicated upon the angle, 
when high speeds are attained the angle 
may be flattened, so obtaining the same 
lift with less resistance and therefore 
less work (since work is product of re- 
sistance and velocity). This is termed 
"Langley's paradox," and has been much 
dilated on by some authorities. It ap- 
plies, however, only to the plane neglect- 
ing friction. Other parts (framing, 



23 



etc.) will increase in resistance with the 
velocity, and Langley's paradox ceases to 
be true for very small angles of attack. 

For starting purposes it is obviously 
desirable to have the initial velocity as 
small as practicable, and so the best 
arrangement would seem to be, one (1) 
with sufficient power to overcome the 
resistance when the plane has an angle 
of 30° and is moving at soaring velocity, 
and (2) with a mechanism for rotating 
the plane so that as soon as flight com- 
menced and by reason of the starting 
acceleration the velocity increased, the 
resistance could be decreased. 

The constructional difficulties have led 
to the use of " elevators" instead of mov- 
able main surfaces, but many arguments 
may be adduced in favor of the latter. 

A further practical point of great 
moment is the resistance of curved sur- 
faces. Mr. Phillips, of Wealdstone, has 
made a large number of experiments 
with slightly curved planes and has 
found that a plane slightly curved down- 



24 



ward in front (approximately "cis- 
soidal" in form) gives a greater lift and 
a smaller drift than a similar true plane 
of the same area at any angle of inclina- 
tion. This fact has been applied in the 
construction of many aeroplanes with 
satisfactory results. Mr. Phillips' own 
machine is exceptional in that he uses 
a large number of very narrow surfaces 
superposed. He has obtained a lift of 
3 lbs. per square foot. 

It should perhaps be noted that the 
wings of birds have this slightly curved 
section, and the parachute also gives a 
good example of the greater lift obtain- 
able with such curvature. 

A camber of about •& the chord of the 
curve gives the least resistance with ap- 
preciable lift. On such surfaces there is 
a disadvantage in that the center of 
pressure recedes when the angle of attack 
decreases so that stability can only be 
assured by the use of a tail. 

As already mentioned, the drift or re- 
sistance is increased by reason of the 






25 



framing and other parts of the machine. 
It is desirable, therefore, to make all 
stays, struts, etc., with a minimum 
frontal area, or if it be not possible to 
greatly reduce same, they should be en- 
closed in a light casing of stream-line 
form (sine-curve or cigar shape) . Petrol 
tanks, motor-casing, aeronaut's cab (if 
possible), etc., can in this way be re- 
duced in resistance, provided, of course, 
the means employed does not materially 
increase the weight. 

As regards steering (both horizontal, 
vertical, and lateral), small planes or 
parts of the large ones should be capable 
of turning or twisting in the three direc- 
tions. Further details as to this are dis- 
cussed later. 

When there is a system of planes 
they should be so arranged that each 
interferes as little as possible with the 
supply of air to the others. Superposed 
planes should be separated vertically by 
a distance at least equal to the width 



26 



planes behind one another should have 
an interval equal to upward of one and a 
half times this dimension. 

The spread divided by the width of 
the surfaces ("aspect ratio ") should be 
as much as possible. The higher the 
aspect ratio the greater is the ratio of 
lift-to-drift and consequently the more 
efficient is the machine. 



27 

CHAPTER III. 

Weight and Power. 

It is of course obvious that the most 
important consideration in connection 
with any flying-machine is the weight to 
be lifted. Supposing that soaring (i.e., 
weight just lifted) is only aimed at, 
then the rules already given supply a 
relation between the weight, angle, area, 
and speed of the plane. 

Weight=.0017 X area of plane X veloc- 
ity 2 X sin 6. cos 6 X 2.5, 
i.e., 

weight 



Area =■ 



.0017 X velocity 2 X sin 0. cos 6 



and (for small angle) 

weight 
sin = 



,0017 X velocity 2 X area X 2.5. 



28 



Note. — These rules will be greatly simplified 
if 6° is substituted for 0, but occasionally less 
efficient angles are used. If combined surfaces 
are used (-£% camber) the constant 4 can be sub- 
stituted for 2.5 in the expression for the lift, 
but 2. 5 is retained for the drift 

The weight that can be lifted therefore 
increases with area ; 
increases with square of velocity; 
increases as sin 6. cos 6 (or sin 9 
for small angles). 

The best combination of area and 
weight has been found to be about 2 lbs. 
of weight per square foot of aeroplane, 
which leads to the rule : 

2.5X.0017Xvelocity 2 Xsin 6. cos 6=.5 

For practical purposes the weight may 
be divided as follows: 

(1) Weight of aeroplane. 

(2) Weight of framing. 

(3) Weight of machinery and pro- 
peller. 

(4) Weight of aeronaut. 



29 



By using silk or calico on bamboo or 
pine the framing and plane may be kept 
within one pound per square foot of 
area. The machinery (if petrol motor 
is used) need not exceed 10 lbs. per 
effective horse-power. The weight of 
aeronaut will vary from 150 to 200 lbs. 
Experience seems to indicate that a man- 
lifting machine cannot be built much 
under 500 lbs. weight, which corresponds 
to an area of aeroplane equalling 250 
ft. super as a minimum. The area can 
be increased up to as much as 1,000 
square feet, but of course the greater the 
area the greater must be the power, 
although by using a flatter angle the re- 
sistance need not be increased in the 
same proportion as the area. 

As regards the power required we 
have the following mechanical rules to 
bear in mind : 

Eesistance (lbs.) X Velocity (ft. per 
sec.) = Power (in foot lbs. per sec.) 

or 



30 



2.5X-0017XareaX velocity 3 X sin 2 = 
power in foot lbs. per sec. to drive 
plane alone. 

If there are (this is always the case 
in practice) additional resistances we 
must put the rule in the following form : 

[(2.5 X-0017 X area of plane X sin 2 0) 
+ (2.5 X -0017 X area of other 
surfaces)] X velocity 3 = power. 

The other surfaces will include the 
propeller. This expression divided by 
550 ==' effective horse-power required to 
drive the machine. It will be noticed 
that there are two features which may be 
varied, the angle and the velocity. 

After flight has commenced the 
velocity may be increased by ( 1 ) increas- 
ing the power or (2) decreasing the 
angle. v The latter is, of course, more 
economical but cannot be carried on in- 
definitely because of the other resistances 
and also because when the angle is very 
small the stability is not great. r 



31 



Experimenters differ greatly as to the 
power required. Mr. Henry Farman in 
his early record flight at Issy-les-Mouli- 
neaux used 50 H.P., whereas Mr. Roe's 
machine succeeded with 9 H.P. Sup- 
posing in each case that the efficiency 
is 60 per cent., this means that Mr. 
Farman drives with 25 H.P. and Mr. 
Roe with 6 H.P. The difference lies 
with the area and angle of the plane. 
Mr. Eoe gets a great initial velocity 
before soaring, using a very flat angle. 
Mr. H. Farman used a greater relative 
area and a larger angle, so that the initial 
velocity for soaring is much smaller.* 
The latter, of course, is more practi- 
cable, but is less economical of power. 
M. Santos-Dumont used a very large 
area (2 ft. per lb. about) and large 
power to his machine, "14 bis," which 
made the first flight in Europe. The 
disposition of the weight is another very 

* In my book "The Problem of Flight" I have 
shown that the minimum soaring velocity can be . 
obtained with an angle between 20° and 30°. — H. O. 



32 



important matter. The question of bal- 
ancing will be further considered later 
on, but initial balance depends, of course, 
on the positions of the weights. 

The master rule for balancing is sim- 
ply this: the resultant pressure must 
always pass through the centre of grav- 
ity of the machine. In other words, the 
pressures on the planes must balance 
about the centre of weight. 

In order to satisfy this condition the 
weight must be so disposed that the 
centre of gravity lies in the centre of 
the width and as nearly as possible at 
the point in the length about which the 
pressures on the planes will balance. 

We must also have the centre of pres- 
sure to advance if the angle of attack 
decreases and recede if it advances. 
i Before making a flight it would be 
well to suspend the machine, so finding 
the exact position of the centre of gravity 
and also the actual weight. These will 
serve as data for computing the stability 
in the manner described later. 



33 



It is the usual practice to put the 
motor and attachments aft the centre 
and the aeronauts car forward, but the 
reverse arrangement is safer. 

A balance weight may be used, which 
will of course have to be included in the 
total weight. 

The following table of weights will 
probably be useful: 

Aluminium, .09 lb. per cubic inch 

Wrought Iron or Steel, .28 lb. " 

Bamboo, 25 lbs. per cubic foot 

Pear, 23 lbs. " 

Willow, 30 lbs. " 

Calico, .04 lb. per square foot 

Dressed cotton, .17 lb. " 4< 

Pegamoid, .10 1b, •« 

Silk (dressed), .05 1b. " 

The breaking stresses of some of these 
materials are as follow : 

(Tensile) 
Aluminium, sheet, 12 tons per sq. in. of 

cross -section. 
Wrought Iron, 25 tons, " ' u 

Steel, 30 tons, " ' Vtl 

Soft timber (pine), 4 to 5 tons " ?• 



34 

- Also : 

Hemp rope (1 in. girth), .04 ton (working load) 
Iron wire rope, " .3 ton " " 

Steel wire rope, " .45 ton " " 

The breaking stresses (given in all 
but the last three cases) should be divided 
by a factor of safety not less than 5 to 
find the working strength. 

It should be noticed that snow, rain, 
or dew deposited on the whole of the 
surfaces will cause an increase of sev- 
eral pounds in the weight, and also, of 
course, any stores carried must be 
included, including petrol, water, pro- 
visions, etc. 

It must also be noticed that the pro- 
pelling machinery when more perfect 
machines are employed will include: 

Friction clutch, 
Cooling water tank, 
Pipes and radiator, 
Change-speed gear, 
Thrust-block, 
Controlling levers, 
Lubrication cups and pipes. 



35 



At present, of course, the small 
motors employed comprise only the en- 
gine, carbureter, and petrol tank, as no 
change of speed (beyond that produced 
by varying the air and petrol supplies) 
is desired, but this must of course only 
be the first stage. Further details as to 
this are given in the next chapter. 

Simple Eules as to Weight, Area 
and Power. 



Velocity 30 to 50 4/ wt lh t 

(feet per sec.) v persq. it. 

30 for curved surfaces ; 50 for planes, 
Eesistance = J to -J of the weight. 
Power necessarv_ weight(lbs.) Xvelocitv 
(B.H.P.) - " 2000 ~~ ' 

On planes the centre of gravity should be 

\ the width of the plane in front of its 

centre. 
On curves the centre of gravity should 

be -J the width of the surface in front 

of its centre. 



36 

CHAPTEE IV. 

Motor and Propeller. 

The desideratum in respect of a motor 
is of course a minimum of weight for 
a maximum of power. In other words, 
the ratio 

weight of motor 
power 

should be as small as possible. The 
record values are as follow : 

Per H.P. 
Dufaux, 1.5 lbs. ) 

Antoinette Co., 2.2 lbs. V Petrol 
Wright Bros., 2.2 lbs. ) 

Maxim, 2.0 lbs. Steam. 

These values are, as far as is known, 
found as follows : 

weight in lbs. -^-B.H.P. = ratio. 



, 



There will, however, be a certain loss 
in the transmission meqhaiiism. In tfye 
light machines at present employed this 
will only be small, but in all oases the 
loss at the propeller is serious. P?Q- 
fessor Langley obtained an efficiency y 6£ 
50 per cent, for a common type of aerial! 
propeller, and his value is frequently ap-j 




Fig. 2. AERONAUTICAL MOTOR. 

The Gnome Rotary Engine. 



38 




Longitudinal Section 




Cross-section 
Fig. 3. THE "PIPE" MOTOR 



39 



proximated to. The late M. Froude has 
shown that in marine practice the maxi- 
mum possible efficiency is 77 per cent., 
and there seems to be good reason for 
supposing the case to be, if anything, less 
satisfactory in air. 70 per cent seems to 
be the probable maximum. 

Taking the value of 50 per cent., this 
means that the horse-power actually per- 
formable by the propeller in moving the 
aeroplane will be only half the brake 
H.P. of the motor. 

It is scarcely necessary in these days 
of motor-cars to describe the petrol 
j motor, but the following features may 
.usefully be noted. 

The source of power is petroleum 
spirit chemically combining with air. 
The spirit is fed from a tank to a "car- 
bureter," where by passing through a 
nozzle under a slight pressure, and at 
the same time mixing with air drawn 
through a pipe passing over the exhaust- 
pipe of the engine, it becomes a highly 
combustible vapor. 



40 



The engine works on the " four-cycle " 
principle, i.e., there are four strokes on 
each of which a different process is per- 
formed. In the first (forward) stroke 
"admission"' occurs — i.e., by atmospheric 
pressure the petrol vapor and air are 
pushed into the cylinder through a 
valve which is opened by a cam driven 
by a shaft geared to the main shaft. In 
the second (backward) stroke the gas is 
compressed into a small space. When 
the stroke is completed an electric spark 
is produced across a gap between the 
terminals of a "sparking plug" screwed 
into the wall of the cylinder. This fires 
the mixture and forces the piston for- 
ward (the third or ignition stroke). 
The last stroke pushes the burnt gas out 
of the cylinder through an exhaust- 
valve operated by a second cam on the 
aforesaid small shaft. Another cam on 
the same "half-speed" shaft makes the 
electrical connection for firing the mixture. 

There are thus three ways of control- 
ling the working of the engine : 



41 



I..-. (1) By "throttling," i.e., varying the 

•supply of petrol to the carbureter. 

(2) By varying the air-supply to the 
carbureter. 

(.3) By slightly altering the moment 

-of ignition. 

v i To. start the engine hand gearing is 
generally used (i.e., to make the first and 
second strokes). In a small motor this 
may be directly applied to the shaft, but in 
a large motor chain gearing is necessary. 

j: The motor-shaft is generally directly 
coupled to the propeller-shaft, but in 
large motors there should be a friction- 
clutch and change-speed gear to vary 
the propeller-thrust. 

As regards the power of the motor the 
following mechanical rules are useful : 

Indicated horse-power = 

. average pressure X stroke X area of piston X revs, 
in lbs. per sq. in. in feet in sq. in. per min. 

2 X 33000 

The average pressure is generally 
about 80 lbs., but can be increased a 



42 

little by enriching the mixture (i.e., ad- 
mitting more petrol to the carbureter) 
or decreased by increasing the air-supply. 
When the motor is running well, by 
slightly advancing the moment of igni- 
tion the power is economized and shock 
reduced. The brake H.P. is generally 
from 5 to 10 per cent, less than the indi- 
cated H.P. by reason of friction, etc., in 
the engine. 

The twisting moment on the shaft 
(i.e., force in pounds, at one foot distant 

. , ... Brake H.P. X 550 X 7 

from shaft) =— -— ^> 

44 X revs, per second 

or 

Twisting moment x - 4 T 4 - x revs. 

B H P = (lbs, feet) per sec. 

550 

Thus, by increasing the speed we re- 
duce the twisting moment, and vice 
versa, but it should be observed that the 
B.H.P. varies with the speed. 

The sources of troubles with a petrol 
motor are generally as follows : 

Firing. Accumulators and induction- 



43 



coil operate the spark. All connections 
should be good and clean. 

Carburation. The carbureter should 
be in good working order, with neither 
too much nor too little petrol, all parts 
free to move, pipes and nozzles clear. 

Compression. There should be no 
leakage in valves, cylinder, or piston- 
rings, valves must not stick on seatings. 
Cylinder-walls lubricated, piston-rings 
tight. Back-firing is due to hot cylinder 
or advanced sparking. (If sparking gear 
is advanced it must be put back before 
restarting. ) 

Lubrication. This should be sufficient 
but not excessive. Over-lubrication of 
cylinder causes smoky exhaust. 

Cooling Water. A large engine will 
have to have radiator and circulating 
pipes feeding cool water to jackets 
around cylinders. Small motors have 
gills cast on to outside of cylinders. In 
aeroplanes the air-current will help to 
cool cylinders, especially if latter are ex- 



44 



posed. Stop directly cylinders becdrrig 
overheated. 

■^Mechanism. If any part of the en- 
gine or gearing rattles or sticks it 
should be at once examined, lubricated- 
and adjusted. Valves require periodical 
grinding in, but this should only be done 
when surfaces are irregularly wornj 
Valve-springs need careful attention and 
Spares must be carried in case of stiffs 
ness or fracture. 

For lightness all parts should be hol^ 
low, if possible, as, bulk for bulk, hollow 
rods, shafts, etc., are much stronger. 

The propeller-shaft should bear with 
one or more collars in a thrust-block 
before reaching the engine, aim isiiGum 
be supported at fairly close intervals to 
prevent vibration. 

The Propeller. 

It is well known that a screw pro- 
peller is similar in principle to the solid 
screw used in mechanism and for fixing. 



45 



When a screw is used for moving a 
piece (as in the leading screws of lathes 
and plane tables) the piece moves by the 
distance from centre to centre of the 
same thread ("pitch") for one revolu- 
tion of the screw. Fixing-screws ad- 
vance by the same distance for one revo- 
lution. 

A screw-propeller consists of a sur- 
face or surfaces which form part of a 
screw, and either the fluid is displaced 
backward from the revolving screw or 
the screw moves forward from the fluid. 
The speed at which the motion takes 
place would in a solid screw be, advance 
(ft. per sec.) = pitch in ft. X revs, per 
sec, but generally the actual advance in 
the fluid is less. Supposing the fluid to 
be still as regards the earth, the screw 
tends to get this given velocity backward 
or forward according to the direction of 
the pitch and revolution; but since it 
cannot move faster than the vessel it is 
attached to it as it were slips backward, 
the value, 



46 

(Pitch X revs.) — speed of vessel • 
(Pitch X revs.) 
being called the "slip ratio." The screw 
works more efficiently as the slip ratio is 
less iip to a certain limit. In marine 
practice this limit is about 12 per cent. 

The parts of the screw act in the 
same manner as a small aeroplane push- 
ing backward and tangentially to the 
direction of rotation. The backward 
effect is balanced against the resistance 
of the machine and its forward accelera- 
tion. The tangential effect is balanced 
against the twisting moment in the 
shaft. Taking, as before, the efficiency 
of the propeller as 50 per cent., we can 
arrive at a notion of the pitch and revo- 
lutions from the following rule : 

Thrust X velocity of advance = work 

done on vessel, 
i.e., 

Thrust in lbs. X velocity of advance 

(feet per second) 

— —^ — =£B.H.P. 

550 



4: 



The velocity of advance = speed of ship 
= (pitch in ft. X rev. per sec.) — 
(slip in ft. per sec.) 

By assuming a slip ratio it is thus 
possible to find the revolutions or pitch 
required, thus : 

Speed of ship + slip ratio (speed of 
ship) = pitch in ft. X revs, per sec- 
ond. 

Thus, if slip ratio is taken at 20%, 
and speed of vessel 66 ft. per second (45 
miles an hour), 

66 + i (66) = say 79 = pitch X revs. 
per sec. 

If revolutions are 10 per sec. (600 per 
minute), this gives a pitch of about 8 
feet. From 600 to 1500 is common. 

It is a common practice to make the 
pitch and diameter of the propeller equal 
to one another. 

As regards the form of propeller, since 
the centre of a rotating mass is only mov- 



48 



ing with a small velocity, it is best to have 
blades which do not reach to the centre. 
Fan-shaped blades seem to give the 
best practical results, and it is fairly 
easy to compute the turning effect re- 
quired to drive a propeller of this type, 
as follows: 

Turning effect (lbs. feet) = area of one 
blade (sq. feet) X mean radius of 
blade (feet)X-002 X sine 2 of mean 
pitch angle X velocity 2 (ft. per 
sec.) X number of blades X 2.5. 

The pitch angle is found as follows: 

tangent of pitch angle = 
pitch 

- 2 ^- X mean diameter of propeller 
(If blades are short it is sufficient to 

take twice the distance from the centre 

of the blade to the centre of the shaft.) 
The velocity (ft. per sec. ) of the blade 

= 2X V 2 - X mean radius (feet) X revs. 

per sec. 

Three or four-bladed propellers are in 



49 



general preferable to two-bladed. With 
the latter there is a very considerable 
vibration. More blades than four should 
not be used on account of the forward 
resistance. Complete screw surfaces are 
not of any use for driving purposes. 

Screws may be placed in front 
("tractors") if desired, but they inter- 
rupt the supply of air to the planes. 

On account of the constructional diffi- 
culty of fixing a single rear screw to a 
monoplane, that type of machine usually 
has a tractor, but biplanes almost always 
employ propellers. 

Lifting-screws will be referred to in 
the last chapter. 

Simple Eules. 

Maximum thrust per H.P. = 

350 

velocity of machine (f.p.s.) 

Maximum thrust of propeller = 

0.0012 X diameter 2 X pitch X revs, per 
(ft.) (ft.) 

sec. X slip velocity 



50 

CHAPTER V. 
Balancing. 

The principle on which balances de- 
pend has already been given. It is fre- 
quently expressed as "The turning 
moment about the centre of gravity must 
be zero." 

In order to assure the permanence of 
this condition it is necessary to know 
the effect of arranging planes in various 
manners. In the first chapter it was 
mentioned that the centre of pressure 
(i.e., the point at which we may regard 
the whole air pressure as acting) is not 
central but nearer to the windward edge. 
The exact position depends on two 
things, one constant and one variable, 
viz., the shape of the plane and the 
angle of inclination between the plane 
and the air-stream. For square planes 
we have JoessePs law: The centre of 



51 



pressure is distant from the centre of 
area 0.3 — (0.3 sin 6) times the width 
of plane in direction of motion. For 
narrow planes not greatly inclined the 
distance is lesi than this, and for broad 
ones it is more. If we attach the plane 
to the frame at the centre of pressure 
there is of course no turning moment 
on the plane itself until it alters its angle 
with the air-stream. If the natural 
direction of the air-stream or the inclina- 
tion of the plane decreases in elevation, 
the centre of pressure goes forward and 
the plane tends to be tilted backward. 
If there are planes fore and aft the 
centre of gravity of the machine, the 
net turning effect is the sum of the total 
pressures on each multiplied by the dis- 
tance of the centre of pressure from the 
place of suspension. In order to neu- 
tralize this some resisting moment 
must be applied. If we have a small 
plane or box kite fore or aft the machine 
to which the air has easy access, by tilt- 
ing this forward or backward such a 



52 



inoment can ; be obtained, the moment 
being the product of the pressure on the 
said small plane multiplied by the least 
distance between the line of direction 
of such pressure and the centre of grav- 
ity of the machine. This is the means 
most commonly employed.* 
,! The same plane may be used for 
upward or downward steering, although 
this object would be much more steadily 
obtained by rotating the main planes. 
Other means of balancing available are: 

(1) The jockey weight. A heavy 
weight slides fore or aft by levers or 
screws, producing a turning moment 
about the centre of gravity. 

(2) The gyrostat. This appliance 
consists of one or more fly-wheels of 
fairly considerable inertia, which are 
rotated very rapidly by a small electric 
inotor. When the vessel tends to incline 
there is a resistance set up by the mo- 

* On curved surfaces the c.p. varies in the reverse 
manner wjth the angle unless the convexity is towards 
the wind, so that a tail is necessary to obtain stability. 



53 



mentum of the fly-wheels (whose 
angular momentum would thereby be 
changed) and their spindles tend to 
swing round (this motion is called "pre- 
cession"). The motion of the spindles 
can be employed to operate steering- 
planes, or by an ingenious arrangement 
of friction-rollers invented hj Mr. Bren- 
nan of torpedo fame is accelerated, the 
result being a righting moment which 
by using a sufficiently high velocity can 
meet all emergencies. This method is 
certainly the most automatic and reli- 
able possible, its only present disad- 
vantage being weight, i.e., for aero- 
planes as now made. 

(3) The pendulum. The deviation 
of the plane may cause a pendulum to 
have motion relative to the framework, 
this motion being employed to operate 
(with or without relay motors) steer- 
ing-planes or screws to produce righting. 
Its disadvantage lies in the time which 
will elapse before the planes or screws 
come into action. 



54 



In connection with balancing it has to 
be noticed that there are six directions 
in which the machine may move or, as 
it is technically spoken of, three out the 
six possible degrees of freedom : 

a. Vertical rotation: 

Forward up = backward down. 
Backward up = forward down. 

&. Horizontal rotation: 

Forward left = backward right. 
Backward left = forward right. 

c. Horizontal motion: 
Forward. 

(Backward. ) 

d. Transverse rotation, vertical and 

lateral motion are not usually 
desirable and should only be pro- 
ducible Bndirectly . 



Each of these should be, of course, 
"under control. 

Vertical rotation is dealt with above. 

Horizontal rotation, which may be 
required to steer the machine or to resist 



00 

lateral air pressure, can be produced in 
three ways : 

(1) By a rudder or vertical steering- 
plane which can be rotated. 

(2) By a box kite which can be ro- 
tated about a vertical axis. This is often 
the same kite as is used for vertical rota- 
tion. Compare Santos-Dumont's ma- 
chine. 

(3) By twisting one of the planes so 
that the backward edge goes upward on 
one side of the centre and downward on 
the other. This is done by Mr. Eoe in 
his ^avroplane'' and in the Wright ma- 
chine. 

Horizontal motion is of course con- 
trolled by the speed of the propeller. 
By inclining the main planes upward or 
downward the speed may be decreased 
or increased, but this will also cause 
ascent or (if the flattening be sufficient 
or the existing speed small) descent. 

This is generally achieved by steering 
surfaces or by shifting the weight, for 
constructional reasons. 



56 



The thrust from the propeller will 
also be a source of disturbance if the 
shaft be not placed in the correct posi- 
tion. If the' planes balance one another 
about the centre of gravity the propeller- 
thrust should pass through the centre of 
gravity. In some cases the propeller is 
used to assist the balance of the planes, 
but since it may not always be used (as 
in gliding), and certainly will not pro- 
duce a constant thrust, this does not 
seem desirable. 

If the aeronaut is able to move about 
in the car this will also lead to altera- 
tion of the balance. Thus a man weigh- 
ing 150 pounds moving backward only 
two feet produces a turning moment of 
300 pounds-feet. 

Lateral wind will of course tend to 
carry the machine with it. The inertia 
of the machine will at first resist this 
force, and the smaller the area pre- 
sented laterally the less will be the dis- 
turbing force. This can be imagined 
, perhaps better if we say that the plane 






57 



will cut into the air-stream obliquely 
with little effort if its area in the direc- 
tion of motion be small. Some steering, 
however, will be necessary if a constant 
direction relative to the earth is desired, 
the steering plane serving as sail to a 
yacht. The latter analogy must, how- 
ever, not be pushed too far, since the 
resistance of a yacht in water to the 
force of the w r ind entirely alters the con- 
dition of things. Eelatively the steer- 
ing in the air will require much more 
effort, since the air is the medium as 
well as the agent of motion. As regards 
the mechanism for controlling the planes, 
wares passing over small pulleys and 
operated from small levers or hand 
wheels give the lightest arrangement. 
Possibly with larger machines levers 
with notched sectors and spring catches 
will be used. 

In cases where it may not be possible 
to use tension wires, strut-levers may be 
built with small rods trussed on four 
sides with a central cross of rods from 



the api - which guy-wires are 

stretched to the ends of the main rod. 
Some means of tightening all such wires 
is indispensable. 

If the -weight method is used 

I sh >mmend that a deep pitched 

leading he used on which the weight will 
run easily between guides, the screws 
a i fated to either hand by a step- 
up gear, so that the weight can be 
rapidly brought into position. 

Inventors using the gyrostat would 
do well to adopt Mr. Brennans method 
in toto. Doubtle— ; - -dally light form 
could easily be designed for airships. 

Simple Rules. 

1. Length of tail must exceed 

width of main area of main 
surfaces surfaces 



-i area of tail 

Angle - illation must n I exceed 

angle of attack. 
Moment of inertia m I - - 

square of distance from centre of 
gravity) must be a minimum. 



' 59 

CHAPTER VI. 

Construction. 

The method adopted for the con- 
struction of an aeroplane will of course 
intimately depend on the type of ma- 
chine and the proportions adopted. 
Many successful machines have been 
arranged with two pairs of transverse 
planes (with or without cell partitions, 
as in the Hargrave box-kite). Each pair 
is framed with rectangular panels, the 
two pairs being connected with a longi- 
tudinal frame or girder. 

This type seems to have been first 
developed by Mr. Chanute, and therefore 
termed the "Chanute biplane." The fol- 
lowing sketch and dimensions of the 
frame of the old Farman machine will 
indicate the general proportions: 



60 






"SI 
p 




61 



The frames are at present generally 
constructed of timber or stout bamboo, 
but steel tube is used in some cases. 

In considering the strength of the 
frame we have three main parts : 

( 1 ) Longitudinal girder, sometimes 
triangular and sometimes rectangular. 

(2) The fore girder, rectangular in 
section. 

(3) The aft girder, rectangular in 
section. 

The latter is generally smaller than 
the fore girder. To find the forces act- 
ing in the parts of the frame we calcu- 
late on the same principles as in bridge 
construction. Taking the longitudinal 
girder, we have the following arrange- 
ment: 



62 







63 



We can for finding strength neglect 
the weight of the longitudinal girder. 

The greatest bending moment will be 
either 

^(Lx-w^Xte-da)}- {w 2 x [x-(d l +d a )][ 

or 

-[ (L 2 -w 4 ) X (x - d x ) J- - -J w 3 X [x- (di-f- d 2 )] }■ 

Use feet and pounds for measure- 
ments, and the result will be in foot- 
pounds turning or "bending moment." 

The resisting moment of the frame 
will be as follows (rectangular frame) : 

2 X pull or push in one bar (lbs.) X 
depth of frame (feet) = bending 
moment. 

Using the greatest bending moment, 
we have then : 

n, i. i( pull in bottom bars ) _ 
( or, push in top bars ) " 

greatest bending moment 
2 X depth of frame 

If the frame is triangular, 



64 




65 



(Push in top bar X S depth) + 2 (pull 
in each bottom bar X A depth) = 
bending moment. 
This leads to the following simple 

rule : 

Pull or push ) _ J> x bending moment , 
in rods ) 4x depth 

For the transverse frame we have: 

Greatest bending moment === 

(L 3 - W 6 ) x-|, or (L 4 - W 8 ) x |- 

The monoplane type of machine de- 
vised by Professor Langley is also adopted 
by some experimenters, but not with 
surfaces in tandem as he had them. In 
this there is a central girder, and the 
transverse planes (which are not super- 
posed in pairs) have framings which are 
jointed with tee-pieces into the central 
shaft. The frames are stiffened by cross- 
struts and stay-wires fixed to the ends 
like the trussed beams used in travelling 
cranes. Steel is preferable for this type 



66 



of frame. Aluminum is of no great ad- 
vantage, as strength for strength it is 
very little lighter, and much more ex- 
pensive and difficult to procure. 

As regards the joints of framework 
it is perhaps best to have specially cast 
junction-pieces, although for small ex- 
periments Messrs. Voisin (the builders 
of Mr. Farman's aeroplane) recommend 
pieces of sheet metal cut into an "H" 
form which will fold over and join 
three pieces meeting at right angles. 
Lashed connections should only be 
temporarj'. 

Mr. Walker recommends the use of 
an alloy of aluminum, copper, and zinc 
(Al. 6%, Cu. 60%, Zn. 30%), which 
he says has a tensile strength of 8500 
pounds per square inch. 

All planes or other parts not framed 
should be stayed or stiffened to the 
main framing. Planes which are to be 
revolvable should have a main rib pass- 
ing through the usual centre of pressure, 
sheathed with metal at the point of 






67 



crossing the frame and passing through 
trunnions. Rotation should be produced 
by wires attached to the plane at some 
point distant from the main rib, the said 
wires being balanced by compensating 
weights or wires, so that the plane can 
be turned in either direction without 
any wire slackening. A screw gearing 
can be used. 

The motor should be placed within 
the longitudinal girder, the transverse 
frames of which will carry the thrust- 
block and bearings of the propeller-shaft. 

The petrol tank can be carried at the 
top bars of the longitudinal girder, so 
as to have a gravity feed to the carbu- 
reter, which should be attached to the 
motor-casing or some part of the fram- 
ing adjacent thereto. The space about 
the motor should be as clear as possible. 

The aviator's seat is generally toward 
the front of the vehicle, and should be 
so arranged that, while access and egress 
are easy, it is possible for him to enclose 
himself so as not to be thrown out in 



68 



any position of the aeroplane, but there 
Is some danger in having the motor at 
his rear. 

There must be easy control from the 
aeronaut's seat of the following de- 
vices : 

1. Wheel for rotating rising plane 
for ascent or descent. 

2. Lever or wheel for rotating or 
twisting steering-plane. 

3. Lever operating friction-clutch on 
propeller-shaft. 

4. Lever operating brake on propel- 
ler-shaft. 

(The two latter will not be required 
on a small machine.) 

5. Throttling lever. 

6. Lever controlling air-feed to car- 
bureter. 

7. Lever advancing spark. 

8. Switch for ignition. 

9. Wheel or lever controlling balance 
weight. 

It is obvious that in larger machines 
these will have to be divided between 



69 



two pilots, but at present all have to be 
operated by one man. On this point 
there are some remarks in the following 
chapter. 

It is necessary to have wheels for 
starting and springs to take the shock 
of impact with the ground at descent. 

Small rubber-tired wheels (about 9 
inches or 12 inches diameter) are used 
at present, the spindles sliding in a, 
square axle-box between horn plates. 
Providing the plane descends squarely, 
these will take the shock. At present 
nothing can be definitely said as to the 
best way of fitting springs to the fram- 
ing. The aggregate stiffness of the 
springs should at least equal twice the 
weight, or the springs will be liable to 
fracture. 

The framing should be constructed 
with large curved runners or skids to. 
protect the planes when landing. 

Every rectangular bay of framing 
should be cross-braced with diagonal 
wires, such wires being fitted with 



70 



adjustable coupling-nuts. The longi- 
tudinal girder should also be well 
stiffened and cross-braced, as it has to 
transmit the thrust and also withstand 
shearing forces from the loads and 
plane-reaction. 

As to the construction of the propel- 
lers, simple fan-bladed screws can be 
made, with two straight rods for each 
blade adjusted so as to give the correct 
pitch-angle at the different points in the 
length, the outer ends having the fabric 
(generally silk, but sheet aluminum may 
be used) stretched across to form the 
blade, but properly shaped wooden and 
steel blades are preferable. 

Professor Pettigrew has recommended 
a flexible propeller, which could be made 
with a rib of telescopically jointed tube, 
winding to give the correct bevel, trans- 
verse ribs being tee-jointed ^o it. Over 
the latter and to the main rib the 
blades could be fixed with eyelets and 
clips or rivets. It is very essential that 
the propeller frame should be sufficiently 



71 



strong, as a serious accident might result 
from a broken blade flying off. 

If curved planes are used the framing 
should of course be curved to fit., with 
guy-wires stretched across the chord of 
the curve if necessary. 



72 



CHAPTEE VII. 

Difficulties. 

Although in the previous chapters the 
subject has seemed fairly straightfor- 
ward, yet it must not be overlooked that 
there are mairy points which are not 
thoroughly understood. Bule-of-thumb 
methods prevail in this as in all other 
subjects, and such methods are not 
always reliable. 

Some of the critical difficulties are 
the following: 

1. Gustiness of wind. 

2. Eapid change of balance. 

3. Simultaneous manipulation of 
planes, balancing, and propulsion gear. 

4. Descent. 

5. Ascent. 

6. Change of speed. 

7. Lateral motion against air-current. 



73 



1. The Gustiness of Wind has received 
attention at the hands of several eminent 
scientists, particularly the late Professor 
Langley. In his work the "Internal 
Work of the Wind" he has given the 
results of a large number of experiments 
made with very delicate and continu- 
ously recording anemometers. These 
results show that the variations in the 
wind pressure are much greater than is 
commonly supposed. The Forth Bridge 
anemometer records also indicate this 
fact, and Lord Eayleigh has shown how 
this variation is probably utilized by 
birds in economizing muscular power. 
As far as aeroplanes are concerned there 
is no apparent means by which they 
could respond to the fluctuations in 
pressure so as to do this, but they will 
tend to oscillate. 

This oscillation will, if the natural 
period of vibration of the machine about 
its centre of gravity be about the same 
as the period of the gust, increase and 
terminate in collapse. Professor Bryan, 



74 



assisted by Mr. Williams, B.Sc, has 
made a number of experiments with 
simple planes gliding, and finds that 
there are two kinds of oscillation, one 
of short period and one of long period, 
but these results may not exactly apply 
to a large complex and weighty aero- 
plane. 

The periodic time increases as the 
square root of the weight and as the 
distance of any part of the weight from 
the centre of gravity. It decreases as 
the square root of the turning moment 
which is righting the machine. 

2. Rapid Righting of Balance. — If the 
aeroplane is subject to a sudden turning 
moment by a gust or motion of a weight 
in the vehicle, it would of course be 
desirable to be able to immediately 
supply an equal and opposite moment to 
maintain balance. This is not, however, 
generally possible, since the means em- 
ployed for balancing are of such a kind 
that a large turning moment needs a 
little time to develop. While this is 



75 



increasing, the excess from the deviating" 
moment will give kinetic energy to the 
vehicle and so it will heel over to a 
greater degree than would occur if the 
moment was balanced at once. When 
this point has been reached the righting 
moment should be more than the deviat- 
ing moment and the vessel will swing 
back. This oscillation will continue un- 
til the damping action of the air on the 
planes extinguishes it. It will be ob- 
vious from this that it is desirable to 
bring the righting moment into action 
as soon as possible, whether planes or 
jockey-weights are used, particularly as 
in most cases there are limits beyond 
which the righting moments decrease. 

3. Simultaneous Operation of Balance, 
Steering and Propulsion. — Referring 
back to the chapter on construction it will 
be observed how many different levers, 
wheels, etc., need attention. In cases of 
emergency this will undoubtedly lead 
to trouble, and as far as possible the 
system should be simplified. Thus the 



76 



steering-gear can be reduced to one 
Avheel if the shaft is pivoted close to 
the pulley or lever rotated by the wheel. 
The rotation of the wheel can then oper- 
ate the balance-plane (for motion verti- 
cally up or down), and the motion of 
the wheel-shaft used as a lever can be 
employed to operate the steering-planes. 

If a jockey-weight is used, a single 
wheel with bevel gearing driving the 
leading-screw (which must be of deep 
pitch) should be used, with free motion 
in either direction. 

Steering (or even balancing) may be 
assisted in a small machine by the aero- 
naut leaning to either side or forward 
(providing, of course, his accommoda- 
tions will allow him to do so). 

The propelling machinery needs con- 
siderable attention. After switching on 
the ignition and opening the throttle 
the motor is started and will need to be 
controlled by varying the throttle of the 
air-supply. Should the motor stop, the 
balance-plane should be rotated until 



:: 



inclined slightly downward in front, 
when the plane will glide downward. It 
will be preferable to slope all the planes 
slightly downward for free gliding. 

4. Descent. — In descending it is 
necessary that the planes should be so 
inclined that there is a sufficient vertical 
component pressure to support the plane 
and a sufficient resistance in the direction 
of motion to prevent a very high velocity 
being maintained. 

Theoretically the best arrangement 
will be for the planes to be inclined at 
an angle from the horizontal downward 
in front about one-third the angle of 
descent from the horizontal. It is very 
important to notice that the effective 
angle between the plane and the stream 
is in this case not the angle with the 
horizontal but the angle with the line 
of motion. 

Descent on to a fairly level surface is 
of course a sine qua non, and springs to 
take the shock of impact. If there are 
wheels and the descent is at a flat angle, 



78 



the shock will be considerably lessened if 
the vehicle can run along the ground. 

5. Ascent. — It has already been men- 
tioned that the minimum soaring veloc- 
ity is obtained with an angle of about 
30°. This, however, involves of course 
a considerable resistance as compared 
with smaller angles, so that many ex- 
perimenters, to save power, use a flatter 
angle. A higher initial velocity is of 
course required, and the travel of the 
plane on the ground will be more. It 
will often be difficult to secure a suitable 
site for commencing a flight, the only 
alternatives to a flat run being a long 
slope or an escarpment. The latter is 
of course dangerous, since if sufficient 
velocity is not reached before the ma- 
chine has reached the base of the escarp- 
ment a bad accident will occur. On the 
whole the level course is far preferable. 

The usual practice is to develop speed 
with planes flat, and when soaring speed 
for any angle is reached throw up the 
planes to that angle. Difficulty is gen- 



79 



erally experienced with the turning 
moment thus suddenly brought into play, 
the centre of pressure receding so that 
the machine tends to dip forward, or if 
the planes are pointed at a forward posi- 
tion, the machine dips backward. This 
must of course be corrected by the steer- 
ing-plane. 

6. Acceleration needs a reserve of 
power and a change of attacking angle 
so that little seems to have been done in 
this direction as yet. 

7. Lateral Motion against a Cur- 
rent. — As already mentioned, this is 
rather a serious difficulty. Save for its 
inertia the machine tends to drift with 
all currents, so that unless there is any 
means of steering laterally the actual 
motion (as compared with the earth) 
will be compounded of its motion 
through the air and the motion of the 
air as compared with the earth. 

A vertical plane acting like the rudder 
of a ship will serve to deviate the vessel 
from this course, but since it depends 



80 



for its action on the relative motion of 
the air itself, it will often be far less 
efficient than the marine rudder, since 
the latter rarely has to encounter cross- 
currents of great relative magnitude. 

To illustrate this point, let us sup- 
pose the machine is proceeding north- 
ward relative to the air, which air is 
at the same time blowing eastward with 
the same velocity. The machine will then 
proceed to the northeast (relative to 
the earth) with a velocity compounded 
.of the said two velocities. If the rudder 
be now set at an angle of 45° to the 
axis of the vessel in the manner which 
would be employed ill stcvfiug a boat 
or ship to bring it round to the north, 
after the first response to the helm, owing 
to the fact that the air-stream is now 
relatively moving against the rudder 
from the northwest, it will act very 
strongly. If, on the other hand, we 
desire to go farther northeast and rotate 
the rudder 45° to the left, it will not 



81 



act at all, shortly after the vessel re- 
sponds to the helm. 

On this matter it is of course only 
possible to give general ideas which 
practical experience must supplement, 
but sufficient has been said to show that 
the problems of balancing, steering, and 
controlling an aerial machine are many 
and serious. 



82 

CHAPTEE VIII. 
Future Developments. 

The art of prophecy has been so much 
practiced in connection with aerial navi- 
gation that it is scarcely necessary to 
repeat the oft-recurring description of 
its possibilities. Personally, I think at 
first we must not expect very much. 
Whether it will eventually produce a 
reconstruction of methods and ideas 
like that which railways have achieved 
it is as yet impossible to say. It depends 
very largely on those practical limita- 
tions of aeronautics, which up to the 
present we have not been able to exactly 
define. 

Regarding the matter from a more 
optimistic point of view, we can say def- 
initely that mechanical flight has been 
achieved and doubtless will continue to 
be in the future, so that the problem 



83 



now is, In what way can the flying- 
machine be developed to give a more 
efficient result ? All prototypes are inef- 
ficient and clumsy. The "Bocket" com- 
pared with a modern express locomotive 
shows scarcely any resemblance; in 
fact, the identity is almost one of prin- 
ciple only. So we may expect it to be 
with aeroplanes. 

As regards the size of the aeroplane, 
by using more power without increase 
of weight (which of course involves an 
even lighter type of motor than we at 
present have) it will be possible to re- 
duce the bearing surface. Probably six 
or seven pounds per square foot will 
eventually be carried, the conditions 
being a larger angle of inclination or a 
greater speed, either of which is neces- 
sarily accompanied by a greater resist- 
ance. 

As regards balancing I venture to 
think that a perfectly automatic gyro- 
static apparatus must displace all rivals. 



84 



Small planes will only need to be used 
for steering. 

There seems more scope for improve- 
ment in the form and arrangement of 
the planes than in anything else at pres- 
ent. The system introduced by Mr. 
Chanute of a longitudinal girder crossed 
by two transverse frames supporting 
the planes is rather fragile when the 
weight is limited as at present, and 
the monoplane is even weaker. 

Most of the machines at present are a 
maze of fine stay- wires interlacing one 
another in all directions to truss the 
various ribs and frames. It would seem 
desirable that the joints of the frames 
should be formed with strong brazed 
angle-pieces, the stay-wires being dis- 
pensed with. The objection to this at 
present is the weight of the angle-pieces 
and extra thickness of frame-tubes. 

These machines seem particularly 
weak at the outer ends of the planes. 
If a plane touches any obstacle when 
landing there is almost certain destruc- 



85 



tion of the whole machine. For this 
reason it seems desirable to reduce the 
spread of the planes, although of course 
the surfaces must be kept relatively 
narrow in the direction of motion. 
Mr. Chanute designed a tiered machine 
consisting of several narrow planes 
above one another, and Mr. Phillips 
has a very similar arrangement of 
curved blades fixed in a frame. Devel- 
opments in this direction seem to be 
promising. 

Further improvements will probably 
appear in the control of the planes. It 
is probably desirable that every bearing 
surface should be revolvable about its 
axis, as is the case with the wings of 
birds. This will of course involve the 
pivoting of each plane frame through 
its usual centre of pressure, and attach- 
ment to the frame of levers or wheels 
capable of motion relative to the main 
girder. Toothed sectors operated by 
pinions would seem to be the best ar- 
rangement when the lifting force will 



86 



allow of the weight involved.* Unless 
these rotary motions can be automatic- 
ally controlled, however, this improve- 
ment will have to wait until the ma- 
chines can carry two engineers to look 
after the mechanism. 

As already mentioned, several fea- 
tures necessary in the propelling machin- 
ery of ships will be indispensable when 
the aeroplanes are built for larger loads: 
clutches, brakes, reversing and change- 
speed gears, auxiliary machines for 
starting, and possibly for steering 
and balancing. 

The use of sheet metal (probably alu- 
minum) for the bearing surfaces is not 
likely to be long delayed. Cochrane's 
corrugated aluminum seems a good idea, 
but of course needs to be tried on a 
large scale. 

Various instruments will, also be 
needed when voyages of any length are 
made, including : 

* This is shown in the diagram which forms the fron- 
tispiece, but most machines as yet rely on the action of 
*he steering surfaces. 






8: 




Fig. 7. The Means Control Mechanism 



Aneroid barometer. (This will prob- 
ably be seriously affected by the air-cur- 
rent and disturbance about the planes, 
but a correction for this may perhaps be 
found by experiment.) 

Thermometer and apparatus for boil- 
ing water. 

Compass on gimbals. 

Sextant or other angle-measuring in- 
strument. 

Anemometer to find relative velocity. 

Another feature which would be 
desirable in larger machines would be 
a casing for the car, of stream-line 
form, so that the resistance to the air 
would be minimized as much as possible. 
This could be constructed of sheet alu- 
minum on a light steel framing. A fish, 
torpedo, or sinuous form would be pref- 
erably adopted, but a cylindrical form 
with spherical or conoidal ends would be 
nearly as efficient and more commodious. 
Transparent lookout panels fore and aft 
would of course be necessary, as well as 
openings for access and repairs. 



89 



One of the chief disadvantages with 
the aeroplane is the necessity of a space 
to commence flight from; and if aerial 
flight on this system becomes common, 
special spaces or stages will have to be 
arranged. The length of these would 
need to be upward of fifty yards, with 
no great obstacle at either end, and the 
width at least half as wide again as the 
largest machine to be accommodated. 
A gentle slope would be preferable. 

Much has been said for and against 
the military utility of aeroplanes. That 
the authorities consider the matter of 
importance is now certain. 

The following applications of aerial 
flight would seem to be possible : 

1. Reconnoitring. — An enemy's move- 
ments would be discernible from a great 
height. The speed of the machine and 
liability to be struck would be the chief 
disadvantages. Xeither of these consti- 
tute insuperable difficulties. Observa- 
tions could be obtained, with allowance 
for the displacement of the point of 



90 

view, and the danger to an aeroplane 
from artillery is not nearly so great as 
with a balloon, since moving more rap- 
idly it would be more difficult to hit, 
and, if hit, unless the machinery is 
touched, only a small hole would be 
made in the bearing surfaces. 

2. Despatch work. — When the ma- 
chines are thoroughly controllable the 
aeroplane would give r. ready means of 
quickly crossing a country occupied by 
hostile troops, or into or from a be- 
leaguered city. For even routine work 
when speed was essential and the dis- 
tance great, aeroplanes could also be 
used. 

3. Bombardment. — This is the novel- 
ist's favorite theme, but is open to many 
difficulties. The recoil from even light 
guns (supposing weight can be carried) 
would seriously affect the stability, and 
many difficulties would occur in getting 
the range, since a projectile would have 
a resultant velocity composed from the 
velocity of the aeroplane, the initial 



91 



velocity from the gun, the gravitation- 
ally acquired velocity during the de- 
scent, and the motion of the air through 
which it falls. This may not be an in- 
surmountable difficulty but is certainly 
a serious one. 

Explosives dropped from any aerial 
machine will be subject to the same dif- 
ficulties. 

4. Fighting. — Aeroplanes to attack 
other aerial vessels (balloons or aero- 
planes) have been projected, and the 
officers of the department dealing with 
this matter in England are understood 
to have this idea in view. 

Eifles might possibly be used from an 
aeroplane, although there are many dif- 
ficulties in connection with marksman- 
ship. 

Bamming would almost certainly 
bring catastrophe to both vessels, and 
hence would only be permissible in ex- 
tremis. 

Balloons would be able to rise above 
aeroplanes. 



02 



It is rather interesting to note in con- 
nection with this subject that Mr. Jane, 
the inventor of the naval "War Game/' 
has stated that manoeuvres of aerial 
vessels have already been schemed by 
his system. 

5. Military surveying. — Topographi- 
cal work of a rough but effective char- 
acter could well be performed from 
aeroplanes, more particularly on account 
of the increased elevation and range of 
view. 

Other developments in connection with 
exploration, surveying, meteorology, 
transit, etc., may be expected. 



93 



CHAPTEE IX. 

Cost. 

The expense involved in building and 
experimenting with aeroplanes is un- 
doubtedly a serious item. Both Pro- 
fessor Langley and Sir Hiram Maxim 
spent many thousands of dollars 
and after all failed to construct 
entirely satisfactory machines. Their 
work has, however, cheapened the work 
of their successors. A small man-car- 
rying machine may now be built for less 
than the cost of a motor-car. 

The main item is of course the motor. 
The cost of this is roughly $50 per H.P. 
when the power is above 20 H.P. and 
less than 80 H.P. For economy it is of 
course best to have small power, but 
this involves a lack of control and a high 



94 



initial speed, both of which are objec- 
tionable. 

If we classify the parts in the fol- 
lowing manner we can get a general idea 
of the cost: 

Say 1 H.P. lifts 16 lbs. (angle about 

12°, speed 35 ft. per sec). 
Power plant, x H.P. wt. 6x lbs. 

$(*) X (30) 
Framing, say 5x lbs. say 8x 
Surface, say 750 sq. ft. 
Load (pilot, etc.), say 6x lbs. 

Thus an aeroplane taking 50 H.P. 
will weigh and cost as follows : 



Power plant, 50 H.P. 
Framing, 
Surface, 750 sq. ft. 



Weight. Cost. 

300 lbs. $1500 

250 lbs. 400 

50 lbs. 50 



Load 



300 lbs. $1950 



Total, 900 lbs. 



05 



Labor would probably work out at 
$.200, making in all $2150. 

Again, take a lower power : 

1 H.P. lifts 50 lbs (angle 7°, speed 45 
ft. per see. ) . 

Cost. 
Power Plant, 10 H.P., 

wt. lOx = 100 lbs. 30z = $300 
Framing, wt. 10* = 100 lbs. 10z = 100 

Surface, say, 200 sq. ft., 15 lbs. 15 

Load (aeronaut I 150 lbs. 



Total wt. 50* = 375 lbs. $415 

Labor at about 200 

8625 

Xote the proportions are different in 
this case. It will be obvious from this 
that the cost of a man-carrying machine 
will vary from about $300 to $4500. I 
do not think the most enthusiastic and 
skilled amateur could do much with less 
than five hundred dollars to spend. 

A variety of amusing and instructive 
experiments may, however, be made 



96 



with small gliders. These may be con- 
structed of bamboo or cane with cotton 
fabric for a trifling cost, and can vary 
in size from that of a child's kite to 
that of a man-carrying aeroplane. 

The larger varieties of say 100 super 
feet and upward bearing surface can be 
tried on a slope, when if the slope is 
long enough or there is a favorable wind 
up the slope a man will be able to soar 
through the air some distance. Even 
comparatively great heights can be ob- 
tained in this way, but the experiment 
carried to this extent is dangerous. 
Otto Lilienthal rnd Percy Pilcher both 
lost their lives in practising soaring, even 
though both men had much previous ex- 
perience. A glide near the ground is, 
however, quite safe. 

Generally speaking, no true motor at 
present known is light and powerful 
enough to drive small aeroplanes. 
Bands of rubber fixed at one end to the 
frame and at the other end to a pro- 
peller boss, and twisted many times by 



97 



revolving the propeller-shaft, will store 
sufficient energy to drive a plane several 
hundred feet. Special clockwork springs, 
if made extra heavy and fully wound, 
will carry a well-designed model a short 
distance, but on account of the reducing 
gear necessary are generally too heavy. 

Eubber will safely store about 100 
inch-pounds per cubic inch. 

Hardened steel springs will store 
about 10 inch-pounds per cubic inch. 

Some useful information concerning 
the construction of kites is given in Mr. 
Fred Walkers little book on "Kites" 
(Simpkin, Marshall & Co.). 

As to the cost of upkeep of an aero- 
plane, particulars are of course not yet 
available, but considerable information 
can be obtained by comparing the cost 
of motor-cars, excluding tire repairs. t 
Particulars of this are given in most of 
the motoring journals from time to 
time. The cost per H.P. is the essential 
item. 



98 



Generally the cost of a machine per 
unit time is of the following form: 

(Constant X H.P.) -j- constant. 
The first constant includes consump- 
tion of fuel, lubricant, etc. The second 
includes depreciation, repairs, and acces- 
sories. 



99 

CHAPTER X. 

Other Types. 

So much has been said about the aero- 
plane that the possible importance of 
other types has been to a great extent 
overlooked. Many men who are con- 
sidered experts have pronounced in favor 
of the helicoptere. and still more have 
pinned their faith on the birdlike ma- 
chine, or ornithoptere. 

Before dogmatizing on the subject a 
very careful consideration of the pros 
and cons is necessary. 

Let us take the ornithoptere first. Its 
disadvantages are : 

1. Complexity of mechanism. 

2. Downthrust on the back stroke of 
the wings, unless their plane coincides 
with the direction of relative motion. 

3. Balancing difficulties. 

4. Paucity of thrust at low speeds. 



100 

5. Periodic variation in the lift and 
thrust, which reduces the average value 
of both and may tend to cause oscillation. 

It is only recently that the flight of 
birds has been at all well understood, and 
its success is now seen to depend on a 
far closer correspondence to environ- 
ment than was previously suspected. 
Professor Marey has shown by photog- 
raphy and electrical apparatus that, dur- 
ing one up-and-down beat of the wing, 
the wing is twisted from an upward 
s]ope (at commencement of downstroke) 
to a downward slope (at end of down- 
stroke) and again to an upward slope 
during the upstroke (the slope increas- 
ing to a maximum at the middle of the 
upstroke). The wing is only horizontal 
near the lowest point of the stroke. 

There are thus the following motions 
of the wing planes during one period : 

1. Forward motion with body. 

2. Eevolution of tip of wing in a 
roughly circular path (i.e., as compared 



101 



with the body, or cycloidal as compared 
with the air). 

3. Torsion of the wing plane, amount- 
ing to about 60° on the downstroke and 

4b° on the upstroke. The upstroke is 
generally performed in less time than 
the downstroke, and is more nearly verti- 
cal than the downstroke. 

The period of one complete up-and- 
down stroke varies from 350 to 9 in 
insects, and from 13 to 3 (per second) in 
birds. 

The area of the wings varies from 50 
sq. ft. per pound (gnat) to -J- sq. ft. per 
pound (Australian crane). The heavier 
the bird the smaller are the wings and> 
generally the better does it fly. 

Professor Pettigrew was firmly of 
opinion that the efficiency of bird and 
insect flight depended very largely on 
elasticity of the wing. He also showed 
that the body rises during the down- 
stroke and falls during the upstroke, 
and that the wings are twisted into a 
screwlike form during the stroke. 



102 

Yet another important point is that 
all flying animals are provided with a 
universal joint between the wing and 
the body, the wings being attached just 
near the centre of gravity of the body, 
the balance being maintained by the 
alteration of the body and head and by 
the rudderlike action of the tail plane. 

From a mechanical point of view it 
is evident that the wings act in just 
the manner of an aeroplane, the action 
being, however, complicated by the re- 
ciprocating motion. During the down- 
stroke there is lifting and propulsion, 
and during the upstroke probably no 
dynamic action. The air-currents in- 
duced seem to be very intricate in char- 
acter, and it is also practically certain 
that birds habitually employ the periodic 
variations in the wind velocity to dimin- 
ish the muscular effort. 

Many machines have been constructed 
which profess to imitate bird flight, and 
there are inventors who claim to have 
made successful flights with such 



103 



machines. Whether they have done so 
or not I cannot say, hut in any case the 
mechanism will need to be of great com- 
plexity and consequent uncertainty as 
compared with the simple aeroplane. 
The advantages of the omithoptere 

are as follows: 

1. Flight from rest without prelimi- 
nary surface glide. 

2. More independence in regard to 
variations of the air-currents. 

3. Propulsion without propellers. 
The Hdicoptere.— Admirers of Jules 

Yerne and George Griffiths will he 
familiar with the vertical-screw machines 
bv which (on paper) those novelists 
have "conquered the air." 

As a matter of fact the vertical-screw 
machine has been regarded by many 
■students of flight as extremely promising. 
Sir G. Cayley, Penaud, and more re- 
cently Kress, Breguet, and others, have 
made many experiments. The advan- 
tages are as follow : 

1. Direct lift from rest. 



104 

2. Lift independent of horizontal 
velocity. 

3. Less exposed surface and conse- 
quent better dirigibility. 

4. Balance obtained by differential 
motion of screws. 

The disadvantages are: 

1. Absolute dependence on motors. 
Breakdown means catastrophe. 

2. Separate motors required for driv- 
ing and lifting. 

3. Smaller mechanical efficiency of 
screw as compared with aeroplane. 

4. Greater strength, and consequently 
weight, of framing. 

5. Greater thrust required. 

It has been suggested that a combina- 
tion of the aeroplane and helicoptere 
would get over the first difficulty, but 
this would accentuate the remaining 
three objections. 

Edison made some experiments on 
lifting-screws, with unsatisfactory re- 
sults, but more recent work by Walker, 
Kress, and Breguet have shown that lifts 



105 

amounting to from 10 to as much as 40 
lbs. per H.P. are possible (85 lbs. is 
claimed in one case but the figure is 
doubtful), so that there can be no great 
mechanical difficulty in constructing 
machines which will lift themselves. So 
long, however, as we have petrol motors 
which will stop upon (comparatively) 
slight provocation this form will not be 
safe. 

As to the form of propeller, if the lift- 
ing speed is not to be great, I am of 
opinion that types somewhat resembling 
ventilating-fans would be preferable. By 
the courtesy of Mr. Hattersley Pickard, 
of Leeds, I have had some particulars of 
a fan which seems to give very good re- 
sults (50 or 60% efficiency). The blades 
are turned axially at the tips so as to 
limit the escape of air by centrifugal 
force, and at the centre a torpedo- 
shaped boss fills the space which other- 
wise would be filled with inert air. The 
pitch must be very fine so that the pitch 



106 

angle does not exceed 6° at the tip of 
the blades. 

In a previous chapter I have given 
rules for calculating the thrust from a 
propeller. This same thrust will serve 
as lifting force. The aggregate lift for 
all the propellers used must of course 
always exceed the weight carried. 

For purpose of balance four vertically 
acting screws at least are necessary 
(paired laterally and longitudinally). 
Any multiple of two (more than four 
can be used), but, generally speaking, 
four propellers of the same total effec- 
tive area as six or eight others will give 
better results. 

In this type of machine it is desirable 
to encase the whole car in a stream-line 
form (torpedo, cigar, or hull-shape) to 
minimize the horizontal resistance. This 
can be of sheet aluminum. 

It also seems desirable to surround the 
propellers with light casings to form 
tunnels for access and egress of. air. 
These must clear the tips of the blades 



107 

by a good distance (say the radius of 
the fan), or there will be loss by friction. 

The car in this type of machine will 
need lateral and longitudinal framed 
(these should be continuous), as in a 
ship. Thrust-blocks will be needed for 
each of the lifting and tractive pro- 
pellers. As regards the latter they may 
be fore or aft, or both. 

Eudders will be necessary, and verti- 
cal steering can be controlled by planes 
capable of rotation about a horizontal 
axis or by varying the speed of the lift- 
ing-screws. If a large lifting speed is 
desired, the lifting-screws must be of the 
open type, not the ventilating type. 

We have now scanned practically the 
whole field of aerial navigation (exclud- 
ing balloons), and a few words as to 
further sources of information will per- 
haps be useful. 

It may be said that a student of thik 
subject needs to give attention to the fol- 
lowing branches of science: 

1. Meteorologv. 



108 

2. Thermodynamics. 

3. Hydraulics (of compressible fluids). 

4. General applied mechanics of ma- 
chines and structures. 

5. Practical construction. 

It is very surprising how wide an area 
of knowledge aeronautics touches. 
Almost every branch of physical science 
must give its quota, and when all is done 
the information obtained is barely suffi- 
cient. 

The literature of the subject is now 
fairly extensive. There are works in 
English, French, German, Italian, and 
Eussian dealing with it. The beginner 
cannot have a better book to start with 
than the late Professor Langley's "Ex- 
periments in Aerodynamics" (2d edi- 
tion), published at Washington by the 
Smithsonian Institution. It is the 
classic work, not on flying-machines but 
on the mechanics of the atmospheric con- 
ditions concerned in flight. 

As regards bird flight, Professor 
Marey's "Animal Mechanism" (Interna- 



109 

tional Science Series, Kegan Paul, Lon- 
don) is excellent, but does not deal with 
the mathematical question. The articles 
"Aeronautics" and "Plight" in the "En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica," Edition IX, are 
good, and there are some good illustra- 
tions in the "Harmsworth Encyclo- 
paedia" (article "Flight"). Herr Moe- 
debeclcs "Pocket Book of Aeronautics" 
(Whit taker, London) contains much in- 
formation, and possibty my own "Prob- 
lem of Flight" (Griffin & Co., London) 
may prove of use. Mr. Lanchester's re- 
cent volumes contain some very import- 
ant matter. 

As regards construction and design of 
frames, engines, etc., any of the text- 
books on "Applied Mechanics" (Perry, 
Goodman, or Cotterill) will be of service. 

Important original papers are: 

1. Lord Eayleigh, "The Mechanical 
Principles of Flight," Memoirs of the 
Manchester Lit. and PhilosopL Soc, 
1899. One shilling. 

2. Proceeding of the Aeronautical So- 



110 

cjety of Great Britain, published in the 
"Aeronautical Journal/' quarterly. One 
shilling. 

,3. Transactions of the Institute of 
Naval Architects (paper on Propellers, 
Besistance, etc.) and the Transactions 
of the Boyal Meteorological Society 
(papers on Besistance of Air, etc.). 

4. Professor Langley, "The Internal 
Work of the Wind/' Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, Washington. 

( , The next few years will doubtless see 
the adoption of aerial navigation among, 
the regular means of locomotion, and its 
sociological effect cannot be predicted 
safely. There is no doubt by now that 
it has come to stay, and that it cannot be 
neglected by any man, and especially 
the engineer, who has an eye to the 
future. Many well known and learned 
scieritists are now dealing with the sub- 
ject. To mention the names of Lord 
Bayleigh, perhaps the most brilliant 
mathematician living, Professor Hele- 
Sthaw, Professor W. H. Dines, Professor 



Ill 

Bryan, Major Baden Powell, Colonel 
Templer, and Colonel Capper, will be 
sufficient to show that the constructor 
of a flying-machine need no longer be a 
"crank." 



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SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS. 13 



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SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS. 47 



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SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS. 49 



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